Kurdistan under the Impact of Religio-Political Confrontations of Ancient Empires (From the Median Empire to the Advent of Islam (Published)
Including most of old Mesopotamia, the Zagros Mountains and surrounding areas was the main part of the empire’s territory. This was the stage for interactions between many civilizations and empires, which later became known as Kurdistan. After the demise of the Median Empire, old Kurdistan was gradually transformed by the battles between invaders in the area as well as exposure to various religions. The land was subjugated by empires through armed contest and occupation, which continued until the Islamic period. Smaller indigenous societies faced with these conflicts tried to maintain their identity and frequently formed alliances with neighboring empires. The Sassanids and Christian Romans not only inflicted severe damage on local terrain but also introduced their religions of Zoroastrianism and Christianity, respectively, which led to the phenomenon of state religion and brought significant socio-cultural change. This present article uses historical sources to examine the religio-political confrontations between ancient empires and explore how these brought about socio-political changes in Kurdistan in the period from the end of the Median Empire until the coming of Islam. Unlike mainstream Iranian, Turkish and Arab studies, which are influenced by the dominant political discourses of ethno-nationalists in the region, this study will look at the political history of the Middle East from the perspective of Kurdistan.
Citation: Mofidi S. (2022) Kurdistan under the Impact of Religio-Political Confrontations of Ancient Empires (From the Median Empire to the Advent of Islam), International Journal of History and Philosophical Research, Vol.10, No.3, pp.53-73
Keywords: Christianity, Median Empire, Old Kurdistan, Roman, Sassanid, Zoroastrianism
Cultural Dualism and Commitment, Rituals and Rites Among Igbo Societies, 1900 – 2000 (Published)
The extremities of modernity and Christianity, and the concomitant innovations emanating from them, caused the syncretism observable in Africa. The microcosm was definitely upset. Equally discernible were consequent dualisms in life styles, festivities, rites and allegiances. Among the cultures affected were rituals, initiations into manhood, exclusive and secret societies and rites of passage/burial. The economic implication of the dualized but single burial/passage rite was the paying of levies/dues to the traditionalists on the one hand, and to the Church, on the other, per a single burial outing. This was to the extent that the cultural commitment of the African was tested; and what were left became re-evaluated. Factually, the beauty of rituals/rites became predicated on dualisms. The order of a burial rite usually read: interment follows immediately after church service and traditional obsequies continue. It, therefore, made economic sense to subscribe to a single species (either traditional or Christian) of rite to reduce both costs and lipservice to the Christian and trado-spiritual cosmogonies. The paper concluded that the extent of commitment to cultures determined the best approaches to the observation of rituals, rites and initiations. For instance: The burial rite of the Ntalakwu in Bende Local Government Area of Abia State was indeed a best approach. It plugged undue economic wastes and lipserving two systems (not masters). This was exemplified at the burial of Pa Azubuike who was neither a former Churchgoer nor a Christian but a full initiate of the Ekpe, Aku Akang and Eketensi cults. The practiced rhythm and staccato of the Eketensi renditions was awesomely electrifying in a 21st century Igbo community. The burial was hundred percent traditional. It was unheard of, and by all indices, was courting the Christian hell on earth. This paper was written through oral interviews, and the use of primary and secondary sources.
Citation: Okoko C.O., C. Godcan-Eze I.E., and Oparah O. (2022) Cultural Dualism and Commitment, Rituals and Rites AmongIgbo Societies, 1900 – 2000, International Journal of History and Philosophical Research, Vol.10, No.3, pp.33-52,
Keywords: Christianity, Commitment, Cultural, Modernity, Traditions, rites
King Jaja and Christianity in Opobo Kingdom of the Eastern Niger Delta (Published)
King Jaja and Christianity in Opobo Kingdom of the Eastern Niger Delta is part of our reaction to the notion that King Jaja was opposed to Christianity. The article traces the activities of missionaries in Bonny before the Bonny Civil War in 1869 which led to King Jaja’s founding of Opobo kingdom. In Opobo, King Jaja supported Chief Epelle, an evangelist, to return to Opobo to continue the work of evangelism. This paper specifically looks at the missionary activities of Bishop Crowther and King Jaja who felt he was biased, favoured the Manilla Pepple faction of the royal family against the Annie Pepple group. The paper opines that it was for this reason that King Jaja turned his back against Bishop Crowther and his version of Christianity. This paper uses both oral history and published works in Christianity in Bonny and other parts of the Niger Delta to support the argument that King Jaja was a Christian.
Keywords: Christianity, Eastern, King Jaja, Niger-Delta, Opobo Kingdom